# A B C D E F H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W
Counters Internal counters used by LaTeX.
Cross References Automatic referencing.
Definitions Define your own commands etc.
Document Classes Some of the various classes available.
Environments Such as enumerate & itemize.
Footnotes How to produce footnotes.
Layout Controlling the page layout.
Lengths The length commands.
Letters The letter class.
Line & Page Breaking How to insert pagebreaks etc.
Making Paragraphs Paragraph commands.
Margin Notes Putting remarks in the margin.
Math Formulae How to create mathematical formulae.
Modes Paragraph, Math or LR modes.
Page Styles Various styles of page layout.
Sectioning How to section properly.
Spaces & Boxes All the associated commands.
Special Characters Special reserved characters.
Splitting the Input Dealing with big files by splitting.
Starting & Ending The formal start & end layouts.
Table of Contents How to create a table of contents.
Terminal Input/Output User interaction.
Typefaces Such as bold, italics etc.
#
A
Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The
name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or
command that produces the number, except with no \. (enumi -
enumiv are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list
of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control
numbering.
part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection
\addtocounter{counter}{value}
The \addtocounter command increments the counter by the
amount specified by the value argument. The value
argument can be negative.
\alph{counter}
This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in
alphabetic characters. The \alph command uses lower case
alphabetic alphabetic characters, i.e., a, b, c... while the
\Alph command uses upper case alphabetic characters, i.e.,
A, B, C....
\arabic{counter}
The \arabic command causes the value of the counter to be
printed in Arabic numbers, i.e., 3.
\fnsymbol{counter}
The \fnsymbol command causes the value of the counter to
be printed in a specific sequence of nine symbols that can be used for
numbering footnotes.
eg. From 1-9:
NB. counter must have a value between 1 and 9 inclusive.
\newcounter{foo}[counter]
The \newcounter command defines a new counter named foo.
The counter is initialized to zero.
The optional argument [counter] causes the counter foo to
be reset whenever the counter named in the optional argument is
incremented.
\refstepcounter{counter}
The \refstepcounter command works like \stepcounter
See section \stepcounter, except it also defines the current \ref
value to be the result of \thecounter.
\roman{counter}
This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in
Roman numerals. The \roman command uses lower case Roman
numerals, i.e., i, ii, iii..., while the \Roman command
uses upper case Roman numerals, i.e., I, II, III....
\stepcounter{counter}
The \stepcounter command adds one to the counter and
resets all subsidiary counters.
\setcounter{counter}{value}
The \setcounter command sets the value of the counter to
that specified by the value argument.
\usecounter{counter}
The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the
list environment to allow the counter specified to be used to
number the list items.
\value{counter}
The \value command produces the value of the counter named
in the mandatory argument. It can be used where LaTeX expects an
integer or number, such as the second argument of a \setcounter
or \addtocounter command, or in:
\hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}
It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters.
One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details."
\label{key}
A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the
key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing
inside a numbered environment assigns that number to the key.
A key can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or
punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are different.
To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon. The prefixes conventionally used are
cha
for chapters
sec
for lower-level sectioning commands
fig
for figures
tab
for tables
eq
for equations
Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:bandersnatch.
\pageref{key}
The \pageref command produces the page number of the place in the
text where the corresponding \label command appears. ie. where
\label{key} appears.
\ref{key}
The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation number, ... of the corresponding \label command.
\newcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
\newcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
\renewcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
\renewcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
These commands define (or redefine) a command.
cmd
\. For \newcommand it
must not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for
\renewcommand it must already be defined.
args
def
def.
definition
cmd; a
parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of
the nth argument when this substitution takes place.
\newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment{nam}[args][default]{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
These commands define or redefine an environment.
nam
\newenvironment there must be
no currently defined environment by that name, and the command
\nam must be undefined. For \renewenvironment the
environment must already be defined.
args
default
default
gives the default value for that argument.
begdef
\begin{nam}; a
parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of
the nth argument when this substitution takes place.
enddef
\end{nam}. It may
not contain any argument parameters.
\newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within]
\newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption}
This command defines a theorem-like environment.
env_name
caption
within
numbered_like
The \newtheorem command may have at most one optional argument.
\newfont{cmd}{font_name}
Defines the command name cmd, which must not be currently
defined, to be a declaration that selects the font named
font_name to be the current font.
Valid LaTeX document classes include:
Other document classes are often available. They are selected with the following command:
\documentclass [options] {class}
All the standard classes (except slides) accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (10 pt is default):
10pt, 11pt, 12pt
All classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is letter):
a4paper, a5paper, b5paper, letterpaper, legalpaper, executivepaper
Miscellaneous options:
These options are not available with the slides class:
The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time at
the bottom of each note.
If you specify more than one option, they must be separated by a comma.
Additional packages are loaded by a
command. If you specify more than one package, they must be separated by a comma.
Any options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown
by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
\usepackage.
Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page.
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.
This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.
\twocolumn[text]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
is typeset in one-column mode.
LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner.
\begin{environment-name}
.
.
.
\end{environment-name}
\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
.
.
.
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single
mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment
within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated
with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so
normally it is used inside an equation environment.
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current
page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
center environment.
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the
page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the
figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
.
.
.
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The
label is bold face and flushed right.
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The enumerate environment uses the enumi through
enumiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theenumi etc.
\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber command.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
\begin{equation}
math formula
\end{equation}
The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places
the equation number in the right margin.
\begin{figure}[placement]
body of the figure
\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure
environment appears.
t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc.
you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure.
\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushleft environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushright environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list. Itemizations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The itemize environment uses the itemi through
itemiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theitemi etc.
This environment is used for creating letters. See section Letters.
The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{list}
The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e.,
{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice
for most cases.
\begin{minipage}[position]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command.
It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory
width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
inside a minipage.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary
footnote counter See section Counters.
NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
.
.
picture commands
.
.
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind
of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You
tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign -- a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A
coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,
then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You
can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the
\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try
changing it inside the picture environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture,h\twocolumn: Use two-column layout.
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.
This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.
\twocolumn[text]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
is typeset in one-column mode.
LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner.
\begin{environment-name}
.
.
.
\end{environment-name}
\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
.
.
.
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single
mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment
within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated
with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so
normally it is used inside an equation environment.
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current
page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
center environment.
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the
page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the
figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
.
.
.
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The
label is bold face and flushed right.
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The enumerate environment uses the enumi through
enumiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theenumi etc.
\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber command.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
\begin{equation}
math formula
\end{equation}
The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places
the equation number in the right margin.
\begin{figure}[placement]
body of the figure
\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure
environment appears.
t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc.
you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure.
\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushleft environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushright environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list. Itemizations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The itemize environment uses the itemi through
itemiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theitemi etc.
This environment is used for creating letters. See section Letters.
The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{list}
The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e.,
{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice
for most cases.
\begin{minipage}[position]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command.
It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory
width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
inside a minipage.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary
footnote counter See section Counters.
NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
.
.
picture commands
.
.
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind
of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You
tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign -- a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A
coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,
then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You
can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the
\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try
changing it inside the picture environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture,h\twocolumn: Use two-column layout.
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.
This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.
\twocolumn[text]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
is typeset in one-column mode.
LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner.
\begin{environment-name}
.
.
.
\end{environment-name}
\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
.
.
.
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single
mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment
within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated
with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so
normally it is used inside an equation environment.
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current
page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
center environment.
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the
page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the
figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
.
.
.
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The
label is bold face and flushed right.
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The enumerate environment uses the enumi through
enumiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theenumi etc.
\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber command.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
\begin{equation}
math formula
\end{equation}
The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places
the equation number in the right margin.
\begin{figure}[placement]
body of the figure
\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure
environment appears.
t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc.
you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure.
\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushleft environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushright environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list. Itemizations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The itemize environment uses the itemi through
itemiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theitemi etc.
This environment is used for creating letters. See section Letters.
The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{list}
The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e.,
{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice
for most cases.
\begin{minipage}[position]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command.
It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory
width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
inside a minipage.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary
footnote counter See section Counters.
NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
.
.
picture commands
.
.
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind
of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You
tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign -- a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A
coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,
then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You
can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the
\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try
changing it inside the picture environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture,h\twocolumn: Use two-column layout.
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.
This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.
\twocolumn[text]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
is typeset in one-column mode.
LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner.
\begin{environment-name}
.
.
.
\end{environment-name}
\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
.
.
.
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single
mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment
within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated
with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so
normally it is used inside an equation environment.
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current
page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
center environment.
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the
page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the
figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
.
.
.
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The
label is bold face and flushed right.
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The enumerate environment uses the enumi through
enumiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theenumi etc.
\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber command.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
\begin{equation}
math formula
\end{equation}
The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places
the equation number in the right margin.
\begin{figure}[placement]
body of the figure
\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure
environment appears.
t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc.
you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure.
\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushleft environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushright environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list. Itemizations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The itemize environment uses the itemi through
itemiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theitemi etc.
This environment is used for creating letters. See section Letters.
The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{list}
The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e.,
{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice
for most cases.
\begin{minipage}[position]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command.
It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory
width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
inside a minipage.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary
footnote counter See section Counters.
NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
.
.
picture commands
.
.
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind
of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You
tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign -- a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A
coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,
then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You
can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the
\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try
changing it inside the picture environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture,h\twocolumn: Use two-column layout.
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.
This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.
\twocolumn[text]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
is typeset in one-column mode.
LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner.
\begin{environment-name}
.
.
.
\end{environment-name}
\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
.
.
.
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single
mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment
within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated
with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so
normally it is used inside an equation environment.
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current
page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
center environment.
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the
page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the
figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
.
.
.
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The
label is bold face and flushed right.
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The enumerate environment uses the enumi through
enumiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theenumi etc.
\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber command.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
\begin{equation}
math formula
\end{equation}
The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places
the equation number in the right margin.
\begin{figure}[placement]
body of the figure
\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure
environment appears.
t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc.
you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure.
\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushleft environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushright environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list. Itemizations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The itemize environment uses the itemi through
itemiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theitemi etc.
This environment is used for creating letters. See section Letters.
The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{list}
The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e.,
{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice
for most cases.
\begin{minipage}[position]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command.
It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory
width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
inside a minipage.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary
footnote counter See section Counters.
NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
.
.
picture commands
.
.
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind
of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You
tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign -- a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A
coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,
then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You
can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the
\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try
changing it inside the picture environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture,h\twocolumn: Use two-column layout.
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.
This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.
\twocolumn[text]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
is typeset in one-column mode.
LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner.
\begin{environment-name}
.
.
.
\end{environment-name}
\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
.
.
.
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single
mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment
within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated
with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so
normally it is used inside an equation environment.
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current
page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
center environment.
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the
page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the
figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
.
.
.
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The
label is bold face and flushed right.
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The enumerate environment uses the enumi through
enumiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theenumi etc.
\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber command.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
\begin{equation}
math formula
\end{equation}
The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places
the equation number in the right margin.
\begin{figure}[placement]
body of the figure
\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure
environment appears.
t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc.
you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure.
\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushleft environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin.
Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
flushright environment.
This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list. Itemizations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The itemize environment uses the itemi through
itemiv counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theitemi etc.
This environment is used for creating letters. See section Letters.
The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{list}
The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e.,
{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice
for most cases.
\begin{minipage}[position]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command.
It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory
width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
inside a minipage.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary
footnote counter See section Counters.
NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
.
.
picture commands
.
.
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind
of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You
tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign -- a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A
coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,
then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You
can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the
\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try
changing it inside the picture environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture,h\twocolumn: Use two-column layout.
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.
This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.
\twocolumn[text]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
is typeset in one-column mode.
LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner.
\begin{environment-name}
.
.
.
\end{environment-name}
\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
.
.
.
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single
mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment
within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated
with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so
normally it is used inside an equation environment.
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current
page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
center environment.
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in
a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the
page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the
figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an
environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.